PeruGloria enhiesta en milenios de historia…

Ethanol fuel

Chemistry
Structure of the ethanol molecule. All links are simple links
Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant for photosynthesis.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6 O2
During ethanol fermentation, glucose is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + heat
During combustion of ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat:
C2H5OH + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + heat
After bending the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced per glucose molecule, and the addition of the three reactions together, there are equal numbers of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the reaction network for the global production and consumption of ethanol Found:
light heat
The heat of combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by expanding hot gases. You could say that light solar is used to run the engine.
Glucose itself is not the only substance in the plant that is fermented. Fructose is also a simple sugar fermentation. Three other compounds in the plant can be fermented after the break by hydrolysis in glucose and fructose molecules that compose them. Starch and cellulose are molecules that are chains of molecules of glucose and sucrose (ordinary table sugar) is a glucose molecule attached to a molecule of fructose. The energy for create the fructose in the plant ultimately comes from the metabolism of glucose created by photosynthesis, so that sunlight also provides the energy generated by fermentation of these other molecules.
Ethanol can also be produced industrially from ethylene (ethylene). The addition of water to the double bond becomes ethene to ethanol:
CH2 = CH2 + H2O CH3CH2OH
This is done in the presence of an acid that catalyzes the reaction, but not consumed. Ethylene is produced from oil by steam cracking.
When ethanol is burned in the atmosphere instead of pure oxygen, other chemical reactions occur with the different components of the atmosphere as N2. This leads to the production of nitrogen oxides NOx, a major air pollutant.
Sources
Main article: Energy crop
The sugar cane harvest
Cornfield in South Africa
Switchgrass
Ethanol is a renewable source of energy because energy is generated by the use of a resource, sunlight, which is naturally replenished. Creation of ethanol starts with photosynthesis causing a raw material such as cane sugar or corn to grow. These raw materials are transformed into ethanol.
About 5% of ethanol produced in the world in 2003 was actually a product of oil. It is formed by catalytic hydration of ethylene with sulfuric acid as catalyst. Can also be obtained via ethylene or acetylene, calcium carbide, coal, oil, gas and other sources. Two million tons of petroleum-derived ethanol are produced annually. The principal suppliers are plants in the United States, Europe and South Africa. Petroleum ethanol (synthetic ethanol) is chemically identical to bio-ethanol and can be differentiated only by radiocarbon dating.
Bio-ethanol is usually obtained from the conversion of carbon based feedstock. agricultural raw materials is considered renewable because they get energy from the sun through photosynthesis, provided that all minerals necessary for growth (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) are returned to earth. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstocks such as sugar cane, bagasse, miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, sorghum, switchgrass, barley, hemp, kenaf, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, fruits, molasses, corn stover, grain, wheat straw, cotton, other biomass, as well as many types of cellulose waste and removal, which is the best estimate of the wheel well.
An alternative process to produce bioethanol from algae is being developed by the company Algenol. Instead of growing algae and then harvest and ferment that algae growing in the sunlight and the production of ethanol that is extracted directly without killing the algae. It says the process can produce 6000 gallons per acre per year compared with 400 liters for the production of corn.
In Currently, first generation processes for the production of ethanol from corn using only a small part of the corn plant: the corn kernels have been taken from the corn plant and only the starch, which represents about 50% of the dry mass of the nucleus is transformed into ethanol. There are two types of second generation processes are under development. The first type uses enzymes and yeast to convert plant cellulose into ethanol, while the second type uses pyrolysis to convert the entire plant either a bio-oil or a synthetic gas. Second generation processes can also be used with plants such as grass, wood or agricultural waste material as straw.
Production Process
See also: the problems associated with corn ethanol and derivatives
The basic steps for producing large scale ethanol are: microorganisms (yeast) fermentation of sugars, distillation, dehydration (requirements vary, see ethanol blends fuel, below), and denaturing (optional). Before fermentation, some crops require saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis (see cellulosic ethanol). Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.
Fermentation
Main article: Ethanol fermentation
Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of sugar. Microbial fermentation currently only works directly with the sugars. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose, are composed of sugars, and can in principle, be converted into sugars for the fermentation. At present, only sugar (eg sugar cane) and starch (corn, example) parts can be economically developed. However, there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, which breaks part of a plant cellulose to sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol.
Distillation
Ethanol plant in West Burlington, Iowa
Sertozinho Ethanol Plant in Brazil.
For ethanol to be used as fuel, water must be removed. Most water is extracted by distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of an azeotrope low boiling water-ethanol. 95.6% m / m (96.5% v / v) ethanol, 4.4% m / m (3.5% v / v) mixture of water can be used as fuel alone but unlike anhydrous ethanol, is immiscible in gasoline, so that the fraction of water is usually removed in subsequent processing to record in combination with gasoline gasoline engine.
Dehydration
Basically, there are five processes of dehydration to remove water from azeotropic ethanol / water. The first process, used in many early fuel ethanol plants, is called azeotropic distillation and is the addition of benzene and cyclohexane to the mixture. When these components are added to the mixture forms a heterogeneous azeotrope in equilibrium mixture vapor-liquid-liquid, when distilled anhydrous ethanol is produced at the bottom of column, and a mixture of water vapor of benzene and cyclohexane. When condensed, it becomes a two-phase liquid. Another early method called distillation extraction, involves adding a ternary element to increase the relative volatility of ethanol. When the ternary mixture is distilled, produce anhydrous ethanol flow top of the column.
With increasing attention to energy saving care, many methods have been proposed to prevent the distillation all together dehydration. Of these methods, a third method that has emerged and has been adopted by most modern ethanol plants. This new process uses molecular sieves remove water from ethanol fuel. In this process, the ethanol vapor pressure passes through a bed of molecular sieve beads. The account of pores are sized to allow absorption of water while excluding ethanol. After a period of time, the bed is regenerated under vacuum to remove absorbed water. Two beds are used so that a is available to absorb water while the other regenerates. This technology dehydration can account for energy savings of 3,000 BTU / gal (840 kJ / l) compared with previous azeotropic distillation.
Technology
based ethanol engines
Ethanol is most commonly used for cars power, but can be used to power other vehicles such as tractors, boats and planes. Ethanol (E100) consumption in an engine is about 51% higher than the gasoline, as energy per unit volume of ethanol is 34% lower than gasoline. However, the higher compression ratios in an ethanol-only engine allow for more power and better fuel economy than could be obtained with lower compression ratios. In general, ethanol only engines are tuned to give a little better power and torque than gasoline engines. In flexible fuel vehicles, the lower compression ratio requires tunings that give the same result when used either gasoline or hydrated ethanol. To maximize the benefits of ethanol, a compression ratio much higher should be used, which would the engine is not suitable for use in gasoline. When ethanol fuel availability allows high compression of ethanol-only vehicles to be practical, efficient fuel the engines of this type should be equal to or greater than current gasoline engines. high-compression engines only current ethanol fuel designs are approximately 20-30% less efficient than their gas only counterparts.
A 2004 study at MIT and a previous study published by the Society of Automotive Engineers identify a way to exploit the characteristics of ethanol fuel substantially better than mixing it with gasoline. The method has the ability to leverage the use of alcohol to achieve a definite improvement on the cost-effectiveness of hybrid electric. The improvement is the use of dual fuel direct injection of alcohol pure (or the azeotrope or E85) and gasoline in any proportion up to 100% of each, in a turbocharged high compression ratio, small-displacement engine with similar performance to an engine twice the displacement. Each source is done separately, with the tank much smaller for alcohol. High compression (which increased efficiency) gasoline engine to run common in conditions of low cruise power. The alcohol is injected directly into the cylinders (and the same fuel injection reduced time) only when necessary to eliminate nock as when accelerating significantly. The cylinder direct injection of ethanol increases the octane rating and high up effective 130. The reduction is calculated on all gasoline consumption and emissions of CO2 is 30%. The time cost of depreciation of consumers showed an improvement in 4:01 turbo-diesel and a 5:01 improvement over hybrid. Moreover, the problems of water absorption in the premixed gasoline (causing phase separation) supply problems of various proportions of mixture and put in cold weather are avoided.
Ethanol's higher octane allows an increase in compression ratio a higher engine thermal efficiency. In one study, motor controls and more complex recirculation of exhaust gases allows the compression ratio 19.5 fuels from pure ethanol E50. Thermal efficiency up to about that for a diesel was achieved. This would result in the MPG (miles per gallon) of ethanol a dedicated vehicle on gasoline like a recording.
Since 1989 there have been engines of ethanol based on the diesel principle operating in Sweden. Used mainly in the city buses, but also in delivery trucks and refuse collection. The engines, manufactured by Scania, have a compression ratio changed, and fuel (known as ED95) used is a mixture of 93.6% ethanol and 3.6% ignition improver and denaturants 2.8%. The ignition improver enables the fuel to ignite the diesel combustion cycle. It is then also possible to use the energy efficiency of ethanol-diesel principle. These engines have been used in the UK reading of transport but the use of bioethanol fuel is gradually being phased out.why
Starter cold winter
2008 Honda Civic Brazilian flex-fuel has direct access outside to the fuel tank on the front side right, the door for fuel tank shown by the arrow.
High ethanol blends is a problem to achieve a vapor pressure sufficient to vaporize the fuel and ignition spark during cold weather (from ethanol tends to increase the enthalpy of vaporization of fuel). When steam pressure is less than 45 kPa starting a cold engine is difficult. To avoid this problem at temperatures below 11 Celsius (59 F), and to reduce emissions higher ethanol during cold weather, the U.S. and markets of Europe adopted a maximum of E85 use in flexible fuel vehicles, and are optimized to operate at a mixture. In cold weather winter, the blending of ethanol in the U.S. There is a seasonal reduction of E70 for these very cold regions, although it is being sold as E85. In places where temperatures fall below -12 C (10 F) during the winter, it is recommended to install an engine heater system for both gasoline and E85 vehicles. Sweden has reduced similar seasonal, but the ethanol content in the mixture is reduced to E75 during the winter months.
Brazilian flex-fuel vehicles can run on ethanol blends to E100, which is hydrated ethanol (up to 4% water), causing the vapor pressure to fall faster compared to E85 vehicles. As a result, Brazilian flex vehicles are built with a small fuel tank located near the secondary motor. During the cold start pure gasoline is injected to prevent problems starting at low temperatures. This provision is particularly necessary for users of the southern and central Brazil, where temperatures normally drop by below 15 degrees Celsius (59 F) during winter. An improved engine flex generation was launched in 2009 that eliminates the need for the gas storage tank secondary. In March 2009, Volkswagen do Brasil launched the E-Flex Polo, the first Brazilian flex-fuel model, without an auxiliary tank for cold starts.
Mixtures Ethanol fuel
For more details on this topic, see common ethanol fuel mixtures.
hydrated ethanol gasoline type C price table for use in Brazil
To prevent the motor position because of "slugs" of water in the fuel lines to interrupt fuel flow, fuel must exist as a single phase. The fraction of water that an ethanol-gasoline fuel can contain without phase separation increases with the percentage of ethanol .. This shows, for example, that E30 can have up 2% of water. If more than 71% ethanol, the rest can be any proportion of gasoline and water or phase separation does not occur. However, fuel consumption decreases with higher water content. The increased water solubility of higher ethanol content permits E30 and hydrated ethanol to put in the same tank since any combination of them always results in a single phase. Something less water is tolerated at lower temperatures. For E10 is about 0.5% v / v at 70 F and decreases to about 0.23% v / va -30 F.
In many countries cars are required to run on ethanol blends. Brazil requires cars be suitable for a 25% mixture of ethanol, and has required various mixtures between 22% and 25% ethanol, since July 2007 to 25% is required. The United States allow blends of up to 10%, and some states require this (or a lesser amount) in all gasoline sold. Other countries have adopted their own needs. From model year 1999, an increasing number of vehicles in the world are manufactured with engines that can run on any fuel from 0% ethanol up to 100% ethanol without modification. Many cars and light trucks (a class containing minivans, all land and vans) are designed to be flexible fuel vehicles (also called dual-fuel vehicles). In years old model, engine sensor systems contained in the fuel alcohol and / or oxygen sensors in the exhaust gas to provide information to the engine control computer for adjust fuel injection to achieve stoichiometric (no residual fuel or free oxygen in the exhaust gases) the air-fuel ratio for any fuel mixture. In newer models, alcohol sensors have been removed, with the computer using only feedback from the oxygen and air flow sensor to estimate the alcohol content. The engine control computer can also adjust (advance) the ignition timing to achieve higher output without pre-ignition when it predicts that higher percentages of alcohol are present in the fuel is burned. This method is based on advanced shock sensors – used in most gasoline engines, high-performance, regardless of whether they are designed to use ethanol or not – that are detected before ignition and detonation.
Fuel economy
In theory, all vehicles driven by fuel-have a fuel economy (measured in miles per U.S. gallon, or liters per 100 km) which is directly proportional to the energy content of fuel. In fact, there are many other variables that come into play that affect the performance of a fuel particularly at a particular engine. Ethanol contains approx. 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, and therefore, in theory, the burning of pure ethanol a vehicle will result in a 34% reduction in miles per U.S. gallon, given the same fuel economy as compared with pure gasoline in flames. Since ethanol has a higher octane, the engine can be more effective with increasing compression ratio. In fact using a variable turbocharger, the relationship compression can be optimized for fuel, so fuel economy almost constant for any mixture. . For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~ 3%) compared to conventional gasoline, and even smaller (1-2%) compared to oxygenated and reformulated blends. However, for E85 (85% ethanol), the effect is significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, requiring more frequent service stations. Actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA tests for all E85 models 2006, the average fuel consumption for E85 vehicles as a result less than 25.56% unleaded gasoline. The U.S. EPA mileage rating of the current flexible fuel vehicles should be considered when making price comparisons, but we must saying it indicated that the E85 is a high performance fuel with an octane rating of around 104, and must be compared with the premium. At an estimated price U.S. retail E85 ethanol is U.S. $ 2.62 $ 3.71 per gallon or corrected for equivalence of energy compared to a gallon of gasoline a price of $ 3.03. Brazilian ethanol from sugarcane (100%) is priced at $ 3.88 versus $ 4.91 for E25 (as in July 2007).
Systems Consumer production
While biodiesel production systems have been marketed to consumers and professionals for many years, traded ethanol production systems designed for use by final consumers have been on the market. In 2008, two different systems companies announced ethanol level rise to the production. The AFS125 Advanced System Fuel Research and Development Allard is capable of producing ethanol and biodiesel on a machine, while the E-100 MicroFueler of E-Fuel Corporation is dedicated to ethanol only.
Country Experience
The world leading producer of fuel ethanol in 2008 were the United States with U.S. $ 9.0 million Liquid gallons (BG) and Brazil (6.47 bg), with 89% of world production of 17.33 billion U.S. gallons (65.6 million liters). Strong incentives, together with other development initiatives in the industry, are leading to emerging ethanol industries in countries such as Canada, China, Thailand, Colombia, India, Australia and Central America. However, ethanol has not yet made a dent in world oil consumption of about 4000 million tons / year (84 million barrels / day) in 2006.
Total annual production of ethanol (all grades)
by country (2004-2006)
15 countries
(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons per year)
The annual production of fuel ethanol
by country (2007-2008)
The 15 countries or blocks
(In millions of gallons of liquid per annum)
World
rank
Country
2006
2005
2004
World
rank
Country / Region
2008
2007
1
Kingdom States
4855
4264
3535
1
United States
9000.0
6498.6
2
Brazil
4491
4227
3989
2
Brazil
6472.2
5019.2
3
China
1017
1004
964
3
European Union
733.6
570.3
4
India
502
449
462
4
China
501.9
486.0
5
France
251
240
219
5
Canada
237.7
211.3
6
Germany
202
114
71
6
Thailand
89.8
79.2
7
Russia
171
198
198
7
Colombia
79.3
74.9
8
Canada
153
61
61
8
India
66.0
52.8
9
Spain
122
93
79
9
Central America
n / a
39.6
10
South Africa
102
103
110
10
Australia
26.4
26.4
11
Thailand
93
79
74
11
Turkey
n / a
15.8
12
United Kingdom
74
92
106
12
Pakistan
n / a
9.2
13
Ukraine
71
65
66
13
Peru
n / a
7.9
14
Poland
66
58
53
14
Argentina
n / a
5.2
15
Saudi Arabia
52
32
79
15
Paraguay
n / a
4.7
World total
13 489
12 150
10 770
World Total
17335.29
13101.7
Brazil
Articles main fuel ethanol in Brazil and History of ethanol fuel in Brazil
Brazil has ethanol fuel across the country. A service station Petrobras So typical Paulo with dual fuel service, marked by an alcohol (ethanol) and G for gasoline.
Typical Brazilian "flex" models from Several car, running on any mixture of ethanol and gasoline, gasohol E20-E25 to E100 ethanol fuel.
The Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was launched in the market Brazil in 2009 and became the first flex-fuel motorcycle sold in the world.
Brazil has the largest and most successful programs of biofuels in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and is considered the world's first sustainable biofuels economy. In 2006 ethanol Brazil provided 18% of the country's fuel road transport sector consumption needs, and in April 2008, over 50% of fuel consumption for the gasoline market. As a result of increased use of ethanol as well as domestic exploitation of deep water oil sources, Brazil, which years ago had to import much oil needed for domestic consumption in 2006 reached complete self-sufficiency in oil supply.
Overall, United States and Brazil head the industrial world in global ethanol production, which together represent 70% of world production and nearly 90% of ethanol used as fuel. In 2006, Brazil produced 16.3 billion liters (4.3 million U.S. gallons liquid), representing 33.3% of total world production of ethanol and 42% of the world's ethanol used as fuel. Sugar cane plantations cover 3.6 million hectares of land for ethanol production, which is only 1% of the arable land in Brazil, with a productivity of 7,500 liters of ethanol per hectare compared with the U.S. productivity of ethanol from corn 3000 liters per hectare.
The ethanol industry in Brazil is more than 30 years of age, and although no longer subsidized, production and use of ethanol was stimulated by:
Low-interest loans to build ethanol distilleries
Guaranteed purchase of ethanol by the state oil company at a reasonable price
Retail pricing of pure ethanol which is competitive if not slightly favorable to the gasoline-ethanol blend
Tax incentives provided for in the decade 1980 to encourage the purchase of vehicles on pure ethanol.
Guaranteed purchase and price regulation were ended some years ago, with relatively positive results. In addition to these other policies, ethanol producers in the state of São Paulo has established a research and technology transfer center that has been effective in improving the yields of sugar cane and ethanol.
There is no longer light vehicles in Brazil pure gasoline. Since 1977 the mandatory government to mix 20% ethanol (E20) with gasoline (gasohol), requiring just a small adjustment in regular gasoline engines. Today the mandatory blend is allowed to vary the country between 20% to 25% ethanol (E25) and is used by all vehicles of regular gasoline and flexible fuel vehicles. The automobile industry manufactured in Brazil developed flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on any proportion of gasoline and ethanol. Introduced in the market in 2003, these vehicles became commercial success. In December 2009, the fleet of "flex" cars and light commercial vehicles, had reached 9.35 million vehicles, 183 300 motorcycles and flex-fuel. Those who work with ethanol and "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, are manufactured to tolerate hydrated ethanol (E100), an azeotrope consisting of 95.6% ethanol and 4.4% water.
The latest innovation in the Brazilian flex-fuel technology is the development motorcycle "flex-fuel. The first flex motorcycle was released by Honda in May 2009. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amaznia, the CG 150 Titan Mix sells for about U.S. $ 2,700. During the first eight months after its market launch of the CG 150 Titan Mix has sold 139,059 motorcycles, capturing a market share market of 10.6%, and the second ranking of sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market in October 2009.
United States
U.S. ethanol fuel
production and imports
(2001-2008)
(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons)
Year
Production
Imports
Demand
2001
1770
n / a
n / a
2002
2130
46
2085
2003
2800
61
2900
2004
3400
161
3530
2005
3904
135
4049
2006
4855
653
5377
2007
6500
450
6847
2008
9000
556
9637
Note: The demand for change include population figures
and small exports in 2005
Main article: Ethanol fuel in the United States
The United States produces and consumes more ethanol fuel than any other country in the world. Use of ethanol as a fuel dates back Henry Ford, who in 1896 designed his first car, the "quad" to run on pure ethanol. Then in 1908, he produced the famous Model T Ford capable of operating with gasoline, ethanol or a combination of both. Ford continues to advocate for ethanol as fuel, even during Prohibition.
More cars on the road today U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on ethanol blends very superior. In 2007, Portland, Oregon, became the first U.S. city to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol. From January 2008, three states of Missouri, Minnesota and Hawaii require ethanol to be blended with motor gasoline. Many cities also require mixtures ethanol due to not achieving the objectives of federal air quality.
FlexFuel E85 Chevrolet Impala LT 2009, Miami, Florida.
Several car manufacturers as Ford, Chrysler and GM, sales of flexible fuel vehicles that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline all the way up to 85% ethanol (E85). In mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.
In the U.S. There are currently about 1,900 distribution stations ethanol, although most stations are in the corn belt area. One method of debate for distribution in the U.S. are using existing pipelines, which raises concerns about corrosion. In any case, some companies proposed building a 1,700-mile pipeline to carry ethanol from the Midwest through Central Pennsylvania to New York.
The production of fuel ethanol from corn in the United States is controversial for several reasons. The production of ethanol from corn is 5-6 times less efficient than production from sugar cane. The production of ethanol from corn is highly dependent on grants and consuming a food crop to produce fuel. The subsidies paid to fuel blenders and ethanol refineries have been often cited as the reason to raise the price of corn, and farmers planting more corn and the conversion of considerable land to corn (maize) production which generally consumes more fertilizers and pesticides than many other land uses. This conflicts with the subsidies actually paid directly to farmers are designed to take the land of corn production and pay the farmers to plant grass and idle land, often in conjunction with programs soil conservation, in a bid to boost corn prices. Recent developments in cellulosic ethanol production and marketing may dissipate some of these concerns. A theoretically much more efficient way for ethanol production has been suggested that their use of sugar beet approximately the same amount of corn ethanol without using corn harvest food especially since sugar beet can grow in less than tropical conditions of sugar cane.
More ethanol is consumed in the U.S. found in mixtures with gasoline down to 10%. It shows an E10 fuel pump in Maryland compulsory sales.
In October 2008 the first "biofuels corridor" was officially opened on I-65, a major thoroughfare to another in the central United States. It extends from northern Indiana to southern Alabama, this corridor formed by more than 200 individual stations makes it possible to supply driving flex-fueled vehicles since Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico without being more than worth a quarter tank of fuel E85 pump.
In April 1923, 2009, the California Air Resources Board adopted specific standards and benchmarks for the carbon intensity of California's low carbon fuel standard (LCFS), which enters into force on January 1, 2011. During the consultation process there was a controversy over the inclusion and modeling of the indirect effects of land use change. After failure of the CARB, among other criticisms, representatives of the ethanol industry in the U.S. complained that this standard exaggerates the environmental effects of corn ethanol and he also criticized the inclusion of the indirect effects of changes in land use as an unfair penalty to corn ethanol produced in the country due to deforestation in the developing world is linked to the U.S. ethanol production. The initial reference value set for 2011 for LCFS means that Midwest corn ethanol does not meet California standards unless the current carbon intensity has decreased.
A similar controversy occurred after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) posted on May 5, 2009, his knowledge of the rules proposed for the new Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS). The draft regulation was published for public comment for a period of 60 days. EPA's proposed regulations also include the carbon footprint of indirect changes of land use. The same day, President Barack Obama signed a presidential directive with the aim of advancing research of biofuels and improve marketing. The Board established a Interagency Working Group on biofuels are part of three agencies, the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Energy. This group developed a plan to increase the use of flexible fuel vehicle and assist in marketing efforts at retail. In addition policies should be coordinated infrastructure that affect the supply, transport security and distribution of biofuels. Group policies also come with ideas to increase investment in fuel last generation, such as cellulosic ethanol, and to reduce the environmental footprint of biofuels crops, corn-based ethanol in particular.
Europe
The production of bioethanol
European Union (GWh)
Not
Country
2005
2006
1
Germany
978
2554
2
Spain
1796
2382
3
France
853
1 482
4
Sweden
907
830
5
Italy
47
759
6
Poland
379
711
7
Hungary
207
201
8
Lithuania
47
107
9
Netherlands
47
89
10
Czech Republic
0
89
11
Latvia
71
71
12
Finland
77
0
27
Total
5411
9274
na = Not available
The consumption of bioethanol in the
European Union (GWh)
Not
Country
2005
2006
2007
1
Germany
1682
3544
3408
2
France
871
1719
3174
3
Sweden
1681
1894
2113
4
Spain
1314
1332
1310
5
Poland
329
611
991
6
United Kingdom
502
563
907
7
Bulgaria
–
0
769
8
Austria
0
0
254
9
Slovakia
0
4
154
10
Lithuania
10
64
135
11
Hungary
28
136
107
12
Netherlands
0
179
101
13
Denmark
–
42
70
14
Ireland
0
13
54
15
Latvia
5
12
20
16
Luxembourg
0
0
10
17
Slovenia
0
2
9
18
Czech Republic
0
13
2
19
Italy
59
0
0
20
Finland
0
10
na
27
EU
6481
10 138
13 563
The consumption of bioethanol is largest in Europe in Germany, Sweden, France and Spain. Europe produces equivalent to 90% of its consumption (2006). Germany produced about 70% of its consumption, Spain 60% Sweden 50% (2006). In Sweden there are 792 E85 stations in France and 131 stations with 550 plus E85 under construction.
On Monday, September 17, 2007 the first ethanol fuel pump was opened in Reykjavik, Iceland. This pump is the only of its kind in Iceland. The Brimborg fuel is imported by a Volvo dealer, as a pilot to see how ethanol fueled cars work in Iceland.
In regular gasoline Countries Low no bio-additives is slowly being outphased, since the EU has legislated that requires the fraction of non-mineral origin to become minimum of 5.75% of total fuel consumption in 2010. This can be done by substitution in diesel or gasoline from any biological source, or fuel sold in the form of pure biofuel. (2007) There are only a few service stations that sell E85, which is 85% ethanol, 15% mixture of gasoline. Directly neighboring country of Germany reports that a better biofuel infrastructure and offers E85 and E50. Biofuel is taxed equally as regular fuel. However, the collapsed fuel abroad can not undergo to tax and a recent payment receipt in most cases suffice to prevent fines from customs control where the contents of the tank. (The authorities are aware of high taxation on fuels and fuel reloading border is a well-known practice.)
An example of an ethanol via USB. This is a OmniCity Scania has been touring the UK, not widely used fuel. A larger fleet of similar buses will enter service in Stockholm in 2008.
Sweden
Main article: Ethanol fuel in Sweden
Sweden is the leading country in Europe regarding the use of ethanol as fuel, although it has to import most of the ethanol. All Swedish gas stations are required by an Act of Parliament to offer at least one alternative fuel, and every fifth car in Stockholm now drives, the least part of alternative fuels, mainly ethanol. The number of ethanol stations in Europe is highest in Sweden, with 1,200 stations and a fleet of 116,000 flexi-fuel vehicles in July 2008.
Stockholm will present a fleet of Swedish-made electric hybrid buses in its public transport system so test in 2008. These buses are used internal combustion engines that run on ethanol and electric motors. Diesel vehicles use ethanol.
In order to achieve wider use of biofuels several government incentives were carried out. Ethanol, like other biofuels, were exempt from both CO2 and energy taxes until the year 2009, which results in a price reduction of 30% on E85 fuel pump on petrol. In addition, other incentives the demand for vehicle owners flexifuel include a bonus of $ 1,800 to buyers of these cars, the exemption from the congestion tax Stockholm up to 20% discount on auto insurance, free parking in most major cities, lower annual registration taxes, and reduced 20% tax for company cars flexifuel. In addition, part of the program, the Swedish Government decided that 25% of their purchases of vehicles (excluding police fire and ambulance) must be alternative fuel vehicles., In the early months of 2008, this package of incentives as a result of motor fuel sales flexible accounting for 25% of new car sales.
Bioethanol stations
European Union
Country
Stations
No/106
people
Sweden
1200
131.26
France
211
3.27
Germany
193
2.35
Switzerland
40
5.27
Ireland
29
6.84
United Kingdom
22
0.36
Asia
China
Main article: Bioenergy in China
China is promoting ethanol fuel based on a pilot basis in five cities in the Midwest and Northeast, a move designed to create a new market for their surplus grain and reduce consumption of oil. Cities are Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Nanyang in central China's Henan Province, and Harbin and Zhaodong in Heilongjiang province, northeast China. Under the program, Henan will promote ethanol-based fuel across the province later this year. Officials say the measure is of great importance in stabilizing of grain prices, raise farmers' income and reducing petrol-induced air pollution.
Thailand
Thailand already use 10% ethanol (E10) widely in large scale in the local market. From 2008 began to Thailand with the sale of E20 and E85 in late 2008 flexible-fuel vehicles, were introduced only two gas stations selling E85.
Thailand is now converting some of the winery actions by the government cassava into ethanol fuel. productions of cassava-based ethanol intensified to help manage agricultural products of cassava and sugar cane. With its abundant biomass resources, it is believed that the program fuel ethanol will be a new means of creating employment in rural areas while improving the balance of fuel imports.
Australia
Article Home: fuel ethanol in Australia
Legislation in Australia imposes a ceiling of 10% in the concentration of fuel ethanol blends. The 90% mixtures of unleaded gasoline and 10% ethanol fuel known as E10. E10 is available at service stations operating under the BP, Caltex, Shell and United brands, as well as a number of smaller independent companies. Not surprisingly, E10 is the most widely available sources closer to production Queensland and New South Wales, where sugar cane is grown. E10 is most commonly mixed with 91 RON "regular unleaded" fuel. There is a requirement that retailers label blends with ethanol fuel in the dispenser.
Greater stability due to pressure of ethanol is used by Shell in its 100-octane fuel. IFS Similarly add 10% ethanol at its 91 octane gasoline label it and sell it cheaper than regular unleaded. This is contrary to the general practice of adding ethanol at a lower quality fuel to the octane number to 91.
Some concern was expressed about the use of ethanol blend fuels in vehicles of gasoline in 2003, but manufacturers widely claimed that their vehicles were engines of such fuels. Since then there have been no reports of adverse effects for vehicles that of ethanol blended fuels.
Caribbean Basin
U.S. ethanol fuel
imports by country
(2002-2007)
(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons)
Country
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
Brazil
188.8
433.7
31.2
90.3
0
0
Jamaica
75.2
66.8
36.3
36.6
39.3
29.0
El Salvador
73.3
38.5
23.7
5.7
6.9
4.5
Trinidad and Tobago
42.7
24.8
10.0
0
0
0
Costa Rica
39.3
35.9
33.4
25.4
14.7
12.0
All countries in Central America, northern South America and the Caribbean are located in a tropical zone with suitable climate for growing sugar cane. In fact, most of these countries have a long tradition of cane mainly sugar production sugar and alcoholic beverages.
As a result of guerrilla movements in Central America in 1983 states U.S. unilateral and temporarily approved the initiative of the Caribbean Basin, which allows most countries in the region to benefit from the tariff and several benefits commercial. These benefits were made permanent in 1990 and, more recently, these benefits were replaced by the Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act, adopted in 2000, and Dominican Republic Free Trade Republicentral America that went to effect in 2008. All these agreements have led to several countries in the region to export ethanol to free U.S. tariffs. Until 2004, countries that benefited most, while Jamaica and Costa Rica, but as the U.S. began to demand more fuel ethanol the two countries increased their exports and two others began to export. In 2007, Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad and Tobago, and Costa Rica exports to the U.S. with a total 230.5 million gallons of ethanol, representing 54.1% of U.S. imports fuel ethanol. Brazil began to export ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8 million liters, representing 44.3% of U.S. ethanol imports in 2007. The other imports that year came from Canada and China.
In March 2007, "diplomacy ethanol "was the central theme of President George W. Bush 's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, it is promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. The two countries also agreed to the technology share and set international standards for biofuels. Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer would allow more Central American countries Caribbean and the Andean countries to take advantage of duty-free trade agreements to increase or become exporters to the United States in the short term. In addition, in August 2007, Brazilian President toured Mexico and several Central American countries and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology. The ethanol alliance between U.S. and Brazil generated some negative reactions from the president of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez and Cuba's then president, Fidel Castro, who wrote that "you see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn. "" Or even worse, "he continued," offering financing poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other food, no tree will be left to defend humanity from climate change. " 'Daniel Ortega, President of Nicaragua, and one of the prime beneficiaries of the technical support of Brazil also expressed criticism of the Bush plan, but promised support for sugar cane-based ethanol during Lula's visit to Nicaragua.
Colombia
Colombia's ethanol program began in 2002, based on a law passed in 2001 the requirement for a mixture of 10% ethanol with regular gasoline, and the plan is to gradually achieve a mixture of 25% in twenty years. Sugar cane production of ethanol began in 2005 when the Act came into force, and as local production was not sufficient to supply enough ethanol for the fleet around the country, program was implemented only in cities with over 500,000 inhabitants, as Cali, Pereira, and the capital city of Bogota. All ethanol production comes from Department of Valle del Cauca, Colombia's traditional sugar cane in the region. Cassava is the second source of ethanol, and potatoes and castor oil also studied.
In March 2009, the Colombian government issued a mandate to introduce E85 flexible fuel vehicles. The executive order applies to all vehicles gasoline engines smaller than 2.0 liters manufactured, imported and marketed in the country since 2012, ordering that 60% of such vehicles must have flex-fuel engine capable of running on gasoline or E85, or any mixture thereof. By 2014 the compulsory fee is 80% and reach 100% by the year 2016. All vehicles with engines larger than 2.0 liters should be able to E85 from 2013. The decree also mandates that by 2011 all gas stations must provide infrastructure to ensure the availability of E85 across the country. The mandatory introduction of E85 flex-fuel has been controversial.
Costa Rica
The government, based on the National Biofuels Programme, established the mandatory use of all gasoline sold in Costa Rica with a mixture of approximately 7.5% ethanol from October 2008. The implementation phase follows a two-year trial which took place in the provinces of Guanacaste and Puntarenas. The government hopes to increase the percentage of ethanol blended with gasoline to 12% over the next 4-5 years. Costa Rica's government is carrying out this policy of reducing the country's dependence on foreign oil and reduce the amount of greenhouse gases produced. The plan also calls for increased ethanol production in crops and tax breaks for flex-fuel vehicles and other alternative fuel vehicles. However, the introduction of the mixture of 7% ethanol was postponed in September 2008 to early 2009. This delay was due to a request from the national association of fuel distribution to have more time to adjust their fueling infrastructure. delays Additional caused a further, and supply stations were not yet ready to handle implementation of ethanol fuel, and is now expected in November of 2009.
Despite the official delay, during the months of February and March 2009, the ethanol mixtures of different was sold without notice to consumers that was the subject of complaints. The national distribution company, RECOPE, explained that he had purchased 50,000 barrels of ethanol stored and ready for distribution, so he decided to use as an oxygenate to replace MTBE. However, retail sales of E7 without interruption in the test regions of Guanacaste and the Pacific Central for three years.
El Salvador
As a result of the cooperation agreement between the United States and Brazil, El Salvador was elected in 2007 to direct experience pilot to introduce the latest technology for growing sugar cane for ethanol production in Central America, and that cooperation bilateral are looking for technical help Central American countries to reduce dependence on foreign oil.
Comparison of Brazil and the U.S.
Evolution ethanol productivity per hectare of sugar cane grown in Brazil between 1975 and 2004. Source: Goldemberg (2008).
The Brazilian industry cane based sugar is much more efficient than the U.S. industry with corn. Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter, compared with the 30 cents per gallon of ethanol from corn. the cultivation of sugar cane requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 600 mm (24 inches) annual precipitation. Sugarcane is one of most efficient photosynthetic in the plant kingdom, able to convert up to 2% of incoming solar radiation into biomass. Ethanol is produced by yeast fermentation of sugar extracted from sugar cane.
the production of sugarcane in the United States takes place in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. In the first growing regions such as Hawaii, sugarcane can produce 20 kg per square meter of exposed surface the sun. The first three plants to produce ethanol from sugar cane-based is expected to go online in Louisiana by mid 2009. Sugar mill plants in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to ethanol production using sugar cane in Colombia based technology to enable production of ethanol profitable. These three plants will produce 100 million gallons of ethanol in five years.
U.S. corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the starch corn must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Despite this difference in production costs, unlike Japan and Sweden, the U.S. does not matter much ethanol from Brazil because of U.S. trade barriers corresponding to a tariff of 54 cents per gallon of a tax intended to compensate for 45 cents blender credit per gallon federal tax that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin. One advantage U.S. offers corn-based ethanol is the ability back third of the raw material back into the market as a replacement for corn used in animal feed is dry.
Comparison of key features between
the ethanol industries in Brazil and the United States
Property
Brazil
U.S.
Units / comments
Raw material
Sugar reed
Corn
main cash crop for ethanol production, U.S. less than 2% of other crops.
The total ethanol production Fuel (2008)
6472
9000
Million U.S. Gallons of liquid
farmland
355
270 (1)
Million hectares.
The total area used for ethanol crop (2006)
3.6 (1%)
10 (3.7%)
Million hectares (total% crops)
Productivity per hectare
6.800 to 8.000
3.800 to 4.000
Liters of ethanol per hectare. Brazil is 727-870 gallons / acre (2006), U.S. is 321-424 gallons / acre (2003)
Energy balance (input energy productivity)
8.3 to 10.2
1.3 to 1.6
Relationship between energy from ethanol and the energy expended in its production
the estimated reduction in GHG emissions
86-90% (2)
10-30% (2)
% Greenhouse gases avoided by the use of ethanol instead of gasoline, use of existing cropland (n ILUC).
Full life cycle intensity carbon
73.40
105.10 (3)
Equivalent grams of CO2 released per MJ of energy produced, including indirect changes in land use.
recovery time Estimated emissions of greenhouse gases
17 (4)
93 years (4)
Closed Brazilian sugar cane and pasture U.S. for corn. Land use change scenarios Fargione
Flexible Fuel Vehicle Fleet
9.3 million
8.0 million
Autos and light trucks only. Brazil from December 2009 (E100 FFV). U.S. in early 2009 (E85 FFV).
Ethanol fueling stations in the country
35 017 (100%)
2113 (1%)
As% of total service stations in the country. Brazil in December 2007. U.S. in January 2010. (170,000 total).
share of ethanol in the market gasoline
50% (5)
4%
As% of total consumption on a volumetric basis. Brazil from April 2008. U.S. in December 2006.
Cost of production (USD / gal)
0.83
1.14
2006/2007 for Brazil (22/liter), 2004 for U.S. (35/liter)
Government Grants (in USD)
0 (6)
0.45/gallon
U.S. From 01/01/2009 a tax credit. ethanol production in Brazil and is not subsidized (6).
Import tariffs (In USD)
20% (FOB)
0.54/gallon
Brazil does not import the fuel ethanol since 2002. U.S. done on a regular basis.
Notes: (1) Only contiguous U.S., excluding Alaska. (2) Assuming no change in land use. (3) CARB estimate for corn ethanol in the Midwest. carbon intensity of California gasoline is blended with ethanol 10% 95.86. (4) Assuming that the change of direct land use. (5) If the vehicles are diesel and ethanol including lower energy content by volume, ethanol accounted for 16.9% of energy consumption in the road sector in 2007. (6) the production of ethanol from Brazil is no longer subsidized, but gasoline is heavily taxed by promoting ethanol fuel (~ 54% tax). In late July 2008, when oil prices were near their highest level and finally the Brazilian real exchange rate against the U.S. dollar was near its most recent minimum, the average price of gasoline retail pump was U.S. $ 6.00 per gallon while the average price was U.S. $ 3.98 U.S. gallon. The last increase in gas sales price in Brazil occurred in late 2005, when the price of oil was $ 60 per barrel.
Environment
Energy balance
Energy balance
Country
Type
Energy balance
United States
Corn ethanol
1.3
Brazil
Sugar cane ethanol
8
Germany
Biodiesel
2.5
Kingdom States
Cellulosic ethanol
236
experimental, not in commercial production
depending the production method
Main article: Ethanol fuel energy balance
All biomass goes at least some of these steps has to be cultivated, collected, dried, fermented, and burned. All this requires resources and infrastructure. The total amount of energy input into the process of comparison with the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as the balance of energy (or "net energy gain). Figures compiled in 2007 by the National Geographic Magazine point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the U.S.: a unit of fossil fuel energy is required to create 1.3 units energy of the resulting ethanol. The energy balance for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is more favorable, 1:8. Energy balance estimates not occur easily, so that many reports have been generated that are contradictory. For example, a separate study reports that the production of ethanol from sugarcane sugar, which requires a tropical climate to grow productively, returns 8-9 power units for each unit expended, compared to corn which only returns about 1.34 units of fuel energy for every unit of energy expended.
Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, produced during fermentation and combustion. However, this is offset by the increased use of carbon dioxide by plants as they grow to produce the biomass. Compared with gasoline, depending on the production method, ethanol releases less greenhouse gases.
Air pollution
Compared with conventional unleaded gasoline, ethanol is a source of free fuel burning particles that combusts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and aldehydes. Gasoline produces 2.44 kg of CO2 equivalent / l of ethanol and 1.94 (ie 21% less CO2) [citation needed]. The Clean Air Act requires the addition of oxygenates to reduce emissions of carbon monoxide in the United States. The additive MTBE is being eliminated due to groundwater contamination, as ethanol becomes an attractive alternative additive. Current methods of production include air pollution from the fertilizer maker of macronutrients such as ammonia.
A study by atmospheric scientists at Stanford University found that E85 fuel would increase the risk of death from air pollution in relation to gasoline by 9% in Los Angeles, USA: a very large urban metropolis, based on the car that is a worst case scenario. Ozone levels increase significantly, thereby increasing photochemical smog and aggravating medical problems such as asthma.
Manufacture
In 2002, control of production process corn ethanol revealed that they released VOCs (volatile organic compounds) at a rate higher than had been previously disclosed. Protection Agency Environmental (EPA) subsequently reached agreement with Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill, two of the largest producers of ethanol, to reduce emissions of these organic compounds volatile. VOCs are produced when fermented corn mash is dried for sale as a supplement for livestock feed. The devices known as thermal oxidizers or catalytic oxidizers can be attached to the plants to burn hazardous gases.
Carbon dioxide
See also: low-carbon fuel
British government estimate the carbon intensity of bioethanol from corn grown in the U.S. and burned in the UK.
Graph of UK figures for ethanol and carbon intensity of fossil fuels. This chart assumes that all bioethanol is burned in their home country and existing farmlands previously used to produce the raw material.
The calculation of the exact amount of carbon dioxide produced in the production of bioethanol is a complex process and inaccurate, and largely depends on the method by which ethanol is produced and the assumptions made in the calculation. A calculation should include:
The cost of cultivation raw material
The cost of transporting raw materials to the factory
The cost of processing the raw material for bioethanol
This calculation may or may not consider the following effects:
The cost of changing land use in the area where the fuel feedstock is grown.
The cost of transporting ethanol from the factory to the point of use
The efficiency of bioethanol compared to standard gasoline
The amount of carbon dioxide produced in the exhaust pipe.
The benefits due to the production of useful bi-products as feed for livestock or electricity.
The graph on the right shows figures calculated by the government the United Kingdom for the purposes of the obligation to carry renewable fuel.
The January 2006 Science article ERG UC Berkeley, estimates that the reduction from corn ethanol greenhouse gases by 13% after reviewing a large number of studies. However, in a correction to that article released shortly after publication, which reduce the estimated value to 7.4%. An article in National Geographic view (2007) incorporates the figures by 22% fewer CO2 emissions Production and use of corn ethanol compared with gasoline and an 56% reduction for cane ethanol. The automaker Ford reported a 70% reduction CO2 emissions with bioethanol compared to gasoline at one of its flexible fuel vehicles.
An additional complication is that production requires tilling new soil that produces a single release greenhouse gases that may take decades or centuries of production reductions in GHG emissions to match. A For example, the conversion of grassland to corn production for ethanol takes about a century of annual savings to offset the greenhouse gases released from initial tillage.
Change in land use
See also: indirect impacts of land use change from biofuels
large farming scale is needed to produce agricultural alcohol, and this requires large amounts of cultivated land. Researchers at the University of Minnesota report that if all the corn grown in the U.S. was used to make ethanol would displace 12% of current gasoline consumption in the U.S.. It is claimed that land for ethanol production is acquired through deforestation, while others have noted that areas currently supporting forests are generally not suitable for crops. In any case, agriculture could mean a reduction of soil fertility due to reduction of organic matter the subject, a decrease in water availability and quality, increased in the use of pesticides and fertilizers, and potential dislocation of local communities. However, the new technology enables farmers and processors increasingly to produce the same result with fewer inputs.
cellulosic ethanol production is a new approach that can alleviate the land use and related problems. Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from any plant material, which could double yields, in an effort to minimize conflict between food needs versus the needs fuel. Instead of using only the starch of the byproducts of milling wheat and other crops, cellulosic ethanol production maximizes the use of all materials plants, including gluten. This approach would have a smaller carbon footprint because the amount of fertilizers and fungicides energy consumption are the same for a increased production of usable material. The technology to produce cellulosic ethanol is currently in the marketing stage.
Many analysts suggest that what the ethanol fuel is used the strategy of production, fuel conservation efforts are also needed to make a big impact on reducing Fuel oil consumption.
Ethanol for Electricity Use
The conversion of biomass into electricity to recharge electric vehicles can be a more "climate friendly" transport option that the use of biomass to produce ethanol fuel, according to an analysis published in Science in May. "You make more efficient use of land and more efficient use of biomass of the plants, making electricity rather than ethanol," said Elliott Campbell, an environmental scientist at the University of California, Merced, who led the research. "It's another reason why, instead of the race for biofuels liquids, we must consider other uses of biological resources. "
For bioenergy to become a widespread climate solution, however, progress technology are needed, analysts said. Researchers continue to search for more profitable developments, both in cellulosic ethanol and advanced batteries vehicle.
Costs of emissions of ethanol
For every billion gallons of ethanol equivalent of fuel produced and combusted in the U.S., the combined change climate and health costs are $ 469 million for gasoline, $ 472,952,000,000 of corn for ethanol depending on the bio heat source (natural gas, corn stover or coal) and technology, but only $ 123,208,000,000 for cellulosic ethanol depending on the feedstock (stover biomass Prairie, Miscanthus, corn or switchgrass).
The efficiency of common crops
As ethanol yields better or different feedstocks are introduced, the ethanol production may become economically viable in the U.S.. Currently, research on improving ethanol yields from each unit of corn is underway using biotechnology. In addition, while oil prices remain high, the economic use of other raw materials such as cellulose, become viable. The byproducts such as straw or wood shavings can be converted into ethanol. fast-growing species such as switchgrass can be grown on the surface of land unsuitable for other cash crops and yield high levels of ethanol per unit.
Culture
Annual Yield (liters / hectare)
Performance Annual (U.S. gal / acre)
Greenhouse gas savings (% vs. petrol) (1)
Comments
Miscanthus
7300
780
3773
Low-input perennial grass. Ethanol production requires the development of cellulosic technology.
Switchgrass
31007600
330 810
3773
Low-input perennial grass. Ethanol production requires the development of cellulosic technology. Breeding efforts underway to increase yields. Increased Production biomass as possible with mixed species of perennial grasses.
Poplar
37006000
400 640
51 100
Fast growing tree. Production ethanol requires the development of cellulosic technology. Completion of the genome sequencing project will help the breeding efforts to increase yields.
Sugarcane
68008000
727 870
8796
Long-season annual herb. It is used as feedstock for most bioethanol produced in Brazil. Newer processing plants burn residues not used for ethanol to generate electricity. Only grows in tropical and subtropical climates.
Sweet sorghum
25007000
270 750
No data
Low-input annual grass. Ethanol production using existing technology is possible. It grows in tropical and temperate climates, but the highest ethanol production estimates assume multiple crops per year (only possible in tropical climates). Do not store well.
Corn
31004000
330 424
1020
High-input annual grass. It is used as feedstock for most bioethanol produced in the U.S.. Only nuclei can be processed using available technology, the development of commercial cellulosic technology would be used and stubble … About the Author

I am a professional editor from
China Suppliers
, and my work is to promote a free online trade platform.
http://www.frbiz.com/ contain a great deal of information about

dog crate wicker
,
ionic dog brush

welcome to visit!

Bronca Peru Vs Venezuela 2009